General Advice on Writing!

Hello! It's been a long time. I am preparing for an epic trip to Barcelona for the International Congress of Vertebrate Morphology (http://icvm2013.com/). I am hurriedly re-analyzing data and putting together my talk. I'm also attempting to submit at least one manuscript before leaving in three weeks (we'll see!), which reminded me of a topic I wanted to post about, writing! Disclaimer: I am not necessarily the world's expert on writing scientific manuscripts but I do have considerable experience and hopefully some useful advice. This is not intended to be an instructional on "how to write an introduction/discussion section." You can consult numerous books and courses on scientific writing.

So, you're part way through your graduate school experience and it's time to start writing your first manuscript for submission to a scientific journal. What's the first step when staring at the awful blinking cursor?

1) Outlining

Yes, since high school we have all been told we should create an outline before starting the writing process. But we're not necessarily taught how to make a good outline. Here are what I consider to be bad and then good outlines. I have used the introduction section as an example but the general advice applies to all sections of the manuscript.

Paper title: Cuteness index for prairie unicorns

Bad:

Write something about unicorns
Write something about cuteness
Unicorns are awesome and breathe rainbow fire

Good:

Unicorns are related to horses

1. Closest relative is extinct Dinohippus (cite Fraser et al. 2013)
2. Possess horns
3. Much cuter than other living equids (cite Equus and Fraser, 2012)

Unicorn cuteness can be measured as the index of horn length to tail length

1. Horn length is a measure of breeding vigor (cite James and Cutie, 1988)
2. Longer tails make unicorns more attractive mates and are proportional to strength of rainbow fire breathing (cite D'ior and Gabbana, 2001)

I won't go on any further. The point I am trying to make here is that a good outline should be detailed and guide your writing on the topic (even if it isn't unicorn cuteness). A good outline will bring together the relevant information and literature.

2) Start "barf writing" (also called stream of consciousness writing, if you prefer something less grotesque)

I don't mean projectile vomiting at your computer screen (although I have had the urge once or twice!). Once I have made an outline, I start filling in the gaps. Importantly, I don't spend much, if any, time editing my writing at this stage. Why? It's better to get your ideas and thoughts on paper and then cut them down or add to them later as needed. Additionally, if you "edit while you write" it will take exponentially longer to write the paper. 

Your "barf writing" will likely be terrible. But that's okay! No one has to see the paper at this stage. I have written some absolutely awful sentences during barf writing but that's what editing is for!

3) Edit like mad (re-write entire sections, if need be)

I am using the word edit very broadly here. I say I am editing even when I am re-structuring paragraphs and moving sentences from one paragraph to another. This is the stage where I asses the flow and structure of the paper. The introduction, for example, should introduce the problem of the study early on and then explain the details of the problem and how it will be solved. I carefully assess the flow of each sentence and it's placement in the paragraph/entire section. Anything that doesn't fit, is cut. The introduction/discussion (at least) should tell a story that flows logically from one element to the next. Resist the urge to tell the reader everything you know about the topic. We don't want to bore them! We want to lead them logically through the problem, convince them it is important/interesting, and tell them how our study is a great way to address it.

I admit this is the most challenging part of writing a scientific paper and it takes the longest. But I find it the most rewarding. As a coherent paper starts to form, I enjoy the sense of accomplishment. 

I wouldn't call this post exhaustive advice on writing scientific papers but it is a start and I consider the points above to be among the most important. If you have any tricks or advice, leave them in the comments!

How to Keep (at least some of) Your Sanity During Graduate School

I have had very little time to update this blog because I have been busily preparing manuscripts and hard tissue samples. But I want to write about a very important topic that MANY graduate students overlook when beginning their careers in academia, their sanity.

Many graduate students think (maybe not consciously) that the path to success in graduate school is working 24 hours a day, seven days a week. In my experience, this approach only leads to exhaustion and resentment. But how can we publish, attend conferences, and finish our theses on time without working 24/7?!

It's all about EFFICIENCY. "Great Dani, all you have given us is a buzz word." But it's true!

1) Make to do lists

This seems really simple but many people don't make useful lists. For example, making a list of things like "write thesis" will not help you become more efficient. These lists are nebulous and not achievable on short timescales. Here is an example of one of my daily "to do" lists.

A) Read So and So et al. 2010
B) Email Dr. Awesome about samples
C) Write two paragraphs of thesis introduction
D) Add acid to samples
E) Create an outline for that upcoming manuscript

I would normally have more on my daily list, but you get the gist.

Note how specific my list is. These are all goals that are achievable in a single day. Using my approach, you will experience an increase in overall productivity and meet your longer term goals sooner.

2) Move on to something else

If you just can't look at your paper anymore, work on something else for awhile (an afternoon or a couple of days). You're doing yourself and your productivity a disservice by paining over one project at a time without making significant progress. A bored mind is an unproductive mind! You'll find it easier to come back to the project after a short break.

3) Don't wait until the day before

Hopefully, most of us learnt this during our undergraduate years. I certainly did! My grades improved a full letter grade once I stopped leaving things to the last minute. So don't wait until the week before your comps to start studying or the day before your proposal to start writing! You won't be able to enjoy points 1) and 2). You will also likely have a miserable experience in graduate school and disappoint your adviser.


So far, I have told you how to maintain efficiency but not necessarily your sanity. Naturally, following the three steps above will help, but there are some very important things that are often overlooked.

Rest, relaxation, and fun are all an integral part of the successful academic life.Working 24/7 will only lead to burn out (even if you're working efficiently). Going to a movie or getting a good night's sleep can actually benefit your research! I am lucky because I have a partner who does not work in academia and he keeps me engaged in non-academic activities like dog walks, barbecues, and date nights. The power of leisure activities cannot be understated!

I recommend a hobby that is not directly related to your research. I am a film fanatic. I also enjoy playing racquetball and walking my dog. I know others who enjoy knitting, role playing games, guitar, hiking, biking, and camping. These activities are not off limits because you're a graduate student.

*Disclaimer* I do not mean that you should spend all of your time in leisure. If you want to be a successful academic, you will need to work long days and long hours (I work between 8 and 10 hours a day because I am efficient but many people work longer). But breaking up your week with fun activities will help you keep at it!

A mentally healthy graduate student is a good graduate student!

Sitka and I at puppy training class, maintaining our collective sanity!

Selling yourself and your work!

It's one thing to know you're awesome, it's another to convince others of it! "Selling yourself" is one of the most important skills you will develop in graduate school. Successfully selling yourself and your work will get you scholarships, fellowships, offers to collaborate, and offers to work in new labs (among many other things). So how do you do it???? I am FAR from an expert and I learn more about selling myself every day, so leave your suggestions/corrections in the comments.

1) Get your name out there

This follows from my previous post on networking (http://evolbiology.blogspot.ca/2012/11/professional-development-and-networking.html). Talk to people, present your work, and take every chance to tell your colleagues about new and exciting things you're working on.

2) Know why your research is exciting

Selling yourself and your work goes beyond presenting at conferences. You need to convince your colleagues that your work is worthwhile and exciting (you might like doing it for the sake of knowledge or because you're "in love" with a particular organism or system but not everyone will agree with you!). Answering the following questions is a good start:

Why should the general public care about your work? In other words, what would you tell your grandma to get her interested?

What are the broader impacts of your work? How will the results affect science and/or society?

How would you pitch your work to a granting committee? Why should they fund your work?

You'll become more comfortable with the answers to these questions the more conferences you attend and grants you apply for (the better you get, the more grants you'll get too!). Keep a 2-3 sentence summary in the back of your mind for impromptu conversations with colleagues.

3) Write a lot of grant/scholarship applications

There's nothing like practice! You might get some money too! Also, see my previous post (http://evolbiology.blogspot.ca/2013/01/graduate-school-part-iii-money.html).

3) Publish

Publishing seems obvious and it is! But it's not as simple as publishing 1000 papers per year in low impact journals. In modern academia you're expected to publish in high(er) impact journals. This doesn't mean you have to publish only in Science and Nature (although I would certainly give anything to do that!). It means finding and telling a compelling story. Papers in Science and Nature tend to have simple but exciting punch lines.

What is the punch line for your work?

You're part way to a high impact paper! Of course, there is a lot more that goes into a Nature paper than a catchy punch line (well-collected data, compelling data analyses etc.) but without one, you're unlikely to be published there. Sometimes it is tempting to get caught up in details and methods. These are important things to consider when designing and performing research. But, unless you're specifically intending to publish a methods paper, they probably shouldn't over shadow your punch line.

4) Have a well organized CV

The following blog is a great guide (http://theprofessorisin.com/2012/01/12/dr-karens-rules-of-the-academic-cv/). If it's difficult to find pertinent information on your CV, you'll be overlooked for grants and jobs!

5) Share your work online

When you publish a new paper or present at a new conference, tell the world wide web about it! You can use Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Academia.edu etc. It's also good practice to email your papers to close colleagues. So much new literature is published every day that your paper might be overlooked by relevant researchers. Don't be afraid to be a little self serving. Some day you'll be judged on the number of times your papers have been cited and you won't ever regret having distributed your work!

Fulbright Fellowship at the University of Wyoming

Since September I have been a Fulbright Fellow at the University of Wyoming. If you're a Canadian interested in doing study or research in the USA, check out the Fulbright Canada webpage (http://www.fulbright.ca/). I've been working in the lab of Dr. Mark Clementz (http://www.uwyo.edu/profiles/faculty-staff/mark-clementz.html), a specialist in the areas of isotope ecology and marine mammal palaeoecology. Dr. Clementz has written some of the seminal papers in marine mammal isotope ecology. I'm also working with Dr. Clementz's recent postdoctoral fellow, Dr. Sora Kim (http://geofaculty.uwyo.edu/skim11/Welcome.html). Dr. Kim is an isotope ecologist and has worked primarily on extant and fossil shark ecology.

My Fulbright project is focused on patterns of oxygen isotopes (from phosphates and carbonates) in the teeth and bone of pronghorns (Antilocapra americana). Pronghorns are "wicked cool" hoofed mammals from the family Antilocapridae. They are not members of the family AntiloCRAPridae, as I once reported in a departmental seminar. They are the only living or extant member of the family but were preceded by a large number of extinct species. I always have to mention the fact that they are the the fastest land mammal in North America (much faster than their current predators). Their speed is usually discussed as a hold over from times when faster predators pursued them.

Besides their coolness, why did I choose to work on pronghorns?

The obvious answer to the question is that UW houses a very large collection of modern and archaeological pronghorn specimens. But I had other motivations. First, pronghorns have an extensive geographic range (northern mexico to southern Alberta). This enables the study of geographic variation in pronghorn isotope values. From this you can create "isoscapes" and compare them to values from rainwater (http://wateriso.eas.purdue.edu/waterisotopes/). Second, because pronghorns are a game animal, they are numerous in collections all over the USA and Canada. These collections span thousands of years, enabling researchers to study temporal changes in pronghorn isotope values, which is relevant to changes in migration and climate change (among other things).

What isotopes am I using and why?

Stable oxygen isotope ratios covary with temperature and rainfall, thus varying with distance from the coast, latitude, and altitude (check out an isoscape of oxygen here http://iamtheweather.com/vveather/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/beverages.jpg). I am now about to describe geographic variation in oxygen isotopes as briefly as possible (so don't expect to become an expert!). Oxygen isotopes change with distance from the coast and with altitude due to the preferential rain out of heavy (18O rather than 16O) isotopes closer to the coast and at lower altitudes. So rainwater isotopes become progressively lighter inland and at higher altitudes. This explains some of the latitudinal variation in oxygen isotopes. Ambient temperature also affects oxygen isotopes in water on the ground. At high temperatures (low latitudes), the light isotope is evaporated from the ground, leaving more of the heavy isotope. At cooler temperatures (high latitudes), less of the light isotope is evaporated. This is an oversimplified explanation of oxygen isotopes but should give you a basic understanding of why oxygen isotopes vary across North America as in the linked map. I'm sure my temporary lab mates are ganging up for attack!

What is the purpose of my research?

My mains goals involve characterizing changes in oxygen isoscapes from mammals under conditions of climate change because these changes can provide indirect evidence for changes in terrestrial rainfall and temperatures on long timescales (thousands to millions of years).

Graduate School Part III: Money!

When you're admitted to graduate school, the university will send you a package describing your degree requirements and the details of your stipend. On average, a Canadian graduate student will make 19,000 per year (sometimes less, sometimes more). Your stipend summary will be broken down into teaching assistantship, research assistantship  and departmental scholarships. Having a stipend is great. I am ecstatic that I get paid to do Science. But, depending on your student fees, stipends can be eaten up pretty quickly. What can you do about it?

It seems obvious but the best solution is to apply for a lot of scholarships. All universities have an awards and/or financial aid office. You can usually request information on available scholarships or log on to their webpage. In Canada, most, if not all, science graduate students will be applying for funding from the National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC; http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/) (for the social sciences there is SSHRC, for the medical sciences there is CIHR). NSERC awards are competitive and applications take a lot of time, so check the deadlines at your institution and start preparing early. Always ask your supervisor for feedback on your research proposal and request reference letters as early as possible (if you request letters the day before they're due, you're liable to annoy your supervisor).

Other Canadian awards include the Queen Elizabeth II graduate scholarships. At some (maybe most?) institutions these applications are reviewed internally so check with your awards office. Many provinces also offer provincial scholarships (Alberta Innovates, Ontario Graduate Scholarship) and most universities offer a suite of internal awards. Your awards office should have information on available provincial and internal awards.

There are also numerous small (and some large) awards available through professional societies including, but not limited to, the Society for the Study of Evolution (http://www.evolutionsociety.org/awards.asp), Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (http://www.vertpaleo.info/Awards.htm), and the Canadian Society of Zoologists (http://www.csz-scz.ca/awards/research_grant/description.html). All major societies offer grants and scholarships but you usually have to be a member. The good news is most student memberships don't cost more then $60 per year.

My biggest piece of advice is to apply for everything for which you are eligible. I have heard many graduate students say they won't apply for certain awards because "they won't get it anyway." Well, you CERTAINLY won't if you don't apply! The more scholarships you apply for (successfully or not), the more experience you gain and the better your applications become. I applied for NSERC three times before I was successful. My proposal improved a million fold from the first application to the third. My experience with scholarship applications has now earned me several competitive scholarships including a Fulbright Scholarship. So keep writing those applications! You're never wasting your time!

Graduate School Part II: Choosing a Supervisor

In a previous post I covered the characteristics that are important for success in graduate school (http://evolbiology.blogspot.com/2012/10/graduate-school-part-i.html). However, deciding to attend graduate school is only the first step.

It is of paramount importance that you be interested in your graduate research project. Hopefully, you will have some idea of the area(s) that interest you from your undergraduate courses. As a fourth year undergraduate, I knew I was interested in functional morphology and evolution (thanks to some of the really awesome zoology courses at the University of Calgary). But it can be difficult to judge whether or not you will enjoy scientific research. It is therefore important for most fourth year undergraduates to undertake a research project. Usually, undergraduate research projects last two semesters and can give you a taste of your future in graduate school. You can also volunteer for different labs in your department. Most PhD or MSc students would be excited to have a helper (it gives them more time to drink their precious coffee!). Ask to volunteer for a variety of labs doing different types of research. In Canada, you can also apply for summer internships through the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC; deadlines for undergraduate applications are usually around December so check with your department). These scholarships look excellent on a CV and provide you with unparalleled research experience. It is also important to peruse the recent scientific literature and/or join a discussion group or club.

Solidifying your interest in science might seem like a lot of work. But doing the work is worth it. Graduate school requires a lot of time and mental energy. Being interested in what you do, makes your job fun. Hating what you do, can make graduate school a bitter experience.

Once you're certain that you definitely want to attend graduate school, you need to find an appropriate supervisor. The best first step is to ask professors with whom you are familiar about potential supervisors in the field. They likely know many people and can point you in the right direction. You can also search university websites. Most professors will publish a description of their research online along with a list of recent (hopefully!) publications. I recommend reading some of their publications. This will give you a good idea of their research interests and make you look keen when it comes time for meetings/interviews.

If you can, it is also a good idea to speak to graduate students. Most graduate students will give you their honest opinion about their adviser. After all, you don't want to end up working for someone who is never around or treats their students poorly. You'll be working under your adviser for years (2-5 depending on your degree level) so it's important to at least get along with them.

The next step is to contact potential supervisors. To get the ball rolling, an email is usually best. Be sure to make your email sound professional. Avoid spelling mistakes and don't use "LOLspeak" ("I can haz masters degree?" = BAD). Also, DO NOT send mass emails to professors. Many profs receive hundreds of mass emails from prospective students every year and yours is liable to be ignored.

I  also urge you to start contacting people EARLY. If you're emailing professors 2 weeks before the application deadline, you are likely to miss it. Professors are busy people! That being said, I would give them 2 weeks to respond before emailing them again (others might have different rules, so ask around). It is okay to remind a professor of your inquiry. It's possible that they tucked the email away for later and forgot about it. I'd forget emails too if I had several graduate students vying for my time, was teaching courses, and serving on departmental committees (among other things!). It doesn't mean that aren't interested!

Once initial contact has been made there are a few options for how to proceed. If they are at a nearby university, you can suggest a one-on-one meeting. These are great because you can often meet lab members and tour the facilities. If they are far away, it's a good idea to arrange for a phone meeting. They are less personal but will show that you're serious about applying. The professor will usually indicate during the one-on-one or phone interview whether they encourage you to apply.

In the event of a positive response, it's time to apply! University websites usually have good instructions and administrative staff that would be happy to help out.

Professional Development and Networking

Most of us know that the network we build will determine (at least in part) the success of our academic careers. The more people we know, both formally and informally, the more likely we are to be considered for post doctoral and other academic positions (assuming your interactions have been positive). Additionally, a larger network affords us more opportunity for collaboration (something that is very important to have on your academic CV when applying for positions). But how can we build a large and targeted academic network? I am far from an expert in this area and I hope this post will be a learning experience for me as well as other graduate students.

There are numerous resources for academics interested in learning how to build a network (websites, books, blogs). Most universities will also hold at least one seminar every year on the subject. I recommend you attend. Seminar coordinators will often invite people with varying levels of academic experience (professors, post docs, and graduate students) to speak on networking. There is usually something for both new and returning graduate students. I have attended a few seminars on networking and there are some recurring themes.

1) Attend conferences and other academic events.

The only way to meet other scientists in your field is to meet them on common ground. This seems really obvious but to some it isn't. Attending conferences can be expensive, especially if you have limited funding, and some graduate students opt out. However, most societies offer travel grants. I received one from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology to attend the 2009 conference in Bristol, England. Many universities also offer funding for attending conferences and/or professional development. Make sure to check with your Graduate Student's Association and faculty office. Even if you don't have a lot of funding, attending conferences is the best way to build your network and I recommend going anyway (even if that means giving up your daily cup of coffee to save!). I try to attend 2-3 conferences per year and to present something at every one. There is an added benefit of building the "presentations" section of your CV.

2) Introduce yourself or have someone else introduce you to more senior researchers in your field

In my opinion, this is the most difficult part of the networking process. It is really tough to walk up to a famous researcher (or a not so famous one) especially if they are surrounded by other adoring fans. In fact, I find conferences super awkward and stressful for these reasons. It is a lot easier to hang out with your friends at conferences because it's comfortable (I call it my "safety zone"). But you have to force yourself to do it. It will get slightly (very slightly) easier with time. As your network grows and you know more and more people, it is also easier to set up introductions, which is considerably less difficult than approaching a famous researcher at random. Your adviser is also a good resource. Most advisers are happy to set up introductions. The graduate students of said famous researcher are also good resources. They can set up introductions and help reduce any ensuing awkwardness. I had some help from other graduate students when I was applying for PhD positions (and it worked!).

3) Get your research out there

This follows from point 1. If you don't advertise your research through presentations and publications, you are a lot less likely to be noticed. I love giving presentations at conferences, even if they sometimes go badly (usually because I didn't practice!). I also find publications to be a huge motivating factor when I am sitting in the lab or office. There is nothing like a "shiny" reprint with your name on it! Of course, presenting and publishing is only the first step. Emailing your new papers to colleagues or acquaintances will help them remember you and generate feedback on your work. Publishing titles and links to your papers on your website will also help alert the online community to your work. You should also bring reprints and abstract copies to conferences. This will help people remember you when they get home!

4) Get business cards

It might seem like something out of the movie American Psycho (it's up to you whether your business cards sport a fancy water mark!) but business cards are really important tools. As above, they can help people remember you when they return home from a long and stressful conference. However, I have definitely gone home with business cards and had absolutely no recollection of why I had them. I (and others) recommend writing what you talked about or the title of your poster/talk on the back of your business card before handing it off. I have recently started doing this and it REALLY helps. We can't all remember every face and conversation.

5) Online or email networking

Emailing other researchers is an obvious first step! We have all had "missed connections" at conferences. A well-worded email can help maintain or initiate relationships. There are also numerous other means of online networking including blogging, twitter, and websites such as Linked In. Of course, you should keep all of your online activity as professional as possible. Inappropriate online content can prevent you from building a successful network. You should also be prepared to get feedback from the online community! Not everyone will agree with your blogs or tweets (but you should have a thick skin if you want to succeed in academia!).

This is a very brief introduction to academic networking. I suggest you also speak to other graduate students as well as your adviser. We have all been there!